It was an eventful 2023 for the U.S. Senate.

The upper chamber experienced bruising legislative battles, had two viral moments in hearing rooms (one involving a near-brawl and the other featuring a sex tape), suffered the death of its oldest member, and spent months ruminating about the health of another.

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Here are the Senate’s biggest moments of 2023:

Sen. Tommy Tuberville’s military holds

The longest-lasting storyline of the year was Sen. Tommy Tuberville’s (R-AL) standoff with Democrats over his hold on senior military promotions in protest of the Pentagon’s abortion policy, which pays for the travel costs and time off of service members who must travel out of state to receive an abortion due to restrictive laws.

Tuberville backed down from the holds in early December, explaining he was doing so to avoid an upcoming vote on a temporary rules change that would've allowed the Senate to confirm the nominees en masse.

Leadership had gotten behind the change and voted it through the Senate Rules Committee. The change was set to come up for a floor vote, and more than enough Republicans had planned to vote with Democrats to push the temporary rule through with a filibuster-proof majority.

“We fought hard,” Tuberville said. “We did the right thing for the unborn and for our military, fighting back against executive overreach and an abortion policy.”

The Alabama senator’s Pentagon abortion fight began in February and in total affected more than 440 military officers. The Department of Defense enacted the rule Tuberville was protesting last year in response to the Supreme Court's overturning of Roe v. Wade, which had guaranteed nationwide abortion access for nearly half a century.

DOD nominees who require Senate confirmation are typically approved in batches, usually without objection, to avoid a severely prolonged process. While Tuberville lacked the power to block the nominees permanently, he was able to delay their confirmations significantly. The first-term senator had vowed to continue his effort until the Pentagon reversed its policy, sparking bipartisan concern over the implications of leaving so many high-level positions unfilled.

Tuberville faced opposition from within his own party, which was internal at first. A group of his Republican colleagues went public with their frustrations in November and began publicly urging Tuberville to lift his holds.

Sen. Markwayne Mullin’s viral hearing spat

Sen. Markwayne Mullin (R-OK) made headlines in November when he nearly came to blows with a witness at a Senate Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee hearing.

Mullin was presiding over the hearing alongside Committee Chairman Bernie Sanders (I-VT) when he began asking Teamsters President Sean O’Brien, one of the hearing witnesses, about posts he had made on social media. The posts were aimed at Mullin directly, with O’Brien calling him a “clown” and “fraud” and included the line: “You know where to find me. Anyplace, Anytime cowboy.”

“Sir, this is a time. This is a place. You want to run your mouth? We can be two consenting adults — we can finish it here,” Mullin said after reading the posts.

“OK, that’s fine. Perfect,” O’Brien replied.

“You want to do it right now?” Mullin, a former professional MMA fighter, asked.

“I’d love to do it right now,” O’Brien said.

“Well, stand your butt up then,” Mullin then said before O’Brien told him to do the same.

Sanders then intervened, chiding both men.

“You’re a United States senator. Sit down,” Sanders said, banging the gavel. “This is a hearing, and God knows the American people have enough contempt for Congress. Let’s not—” he added before being cut off by the two men.

Mullin has said he stands by his behavior and called O’Brien a bully.

"So I had one choice in this to fight, and I have a real disdain for bullies. And I’ve always taught my boys the same thing," Mullin said in November. "You do not ever bully anyone, but you will step up every time you see someone bullying because not everybody has the skill set to stand up to bullies. I understand that.”

Senate hearing room sex tape scandal

Explicit video footage was published on Dec. 15 that purportedly showed two men engaging in sexual intercourse on the dais of a Senate hearing room. The Daily Caller, which obtained the pornographic material, reported that the footage was filmed by a congressional staffer inside the Senate Judiciary Committee hearing room in the Hart Senate Office Building, which is known for high-profile confirmation hearings for Supreme Court justices.

Although the outlet did not name the staffer in question, Aidan Maese-Czeropski's name was subsequently widely shared on social media. Maese-Czeropski was a legislative aide in Sen. Ben Cardin’s (D-MD) office before being fired shortly after the video came to light.

The footage was published hours after the American Spectator reported that a male staffer in Cardin's office had been filming pornographic videos in the Capitol. While the person was not identified, the report references one of the individual staffer’s social media accounts, to which he allegedly posts sexually explicit images and videos.

Maese-Czeropski, 24, has not confirmed that he was one of the two men in the pornographic video, instead taking to social media the same day that the footage came out to largely absolve himself of responsibility for the material and threaten legal action. The post, published to his LinkedIn, has since been deleted along with Maese-Czeropski’s account.

The U.S. Capitol Police told the Washington Examiner that it was investigating the matter, which Sen. John Kennedy (R-LA) predicted would end in some manner of criminal charges.

“I think there's gonna be an investigation, and I think there will probably be a criminal prosecution is my best guess,” Kennedy said.

Jonathan Turley, the George Washington University law professor and constitutional scholar, similarly speculated that Maese-Czeropski could face criminal charges for trespassing, indecent exposure, and misuse of public property.

“Staffers have access into such rooms, but the question is whether this unofficial use would constitute trespass,” Turley wrote in a blog post. “It also uses an official area for personal purposes, though it is not clear if there were any commercial benefits garnered from the video found on various sites.”

For his part, Cardin told reporters upon returning to Washington after the video emerged that he was cooperating with Capitol Police's investigation into the matter. He also expressed his disgust over the situation.

“I was angry, disappointed. It's a breach of trust so all of the above,” the Maryland senator said. “It’s a tragic situation, and it’s presented a lot of anger and frustration. I’m concerned about our staff and the way that they feel about this.”

Asked if he had received an apology from Maese-Czeropski, Cardin said he had not spoken to him directly.

Sen. Dianne Feinstein’s death

Whether Sen. Dianne Feinstein would and could remain in her coveted seat was the subject of intense national debate this year as concerns mounted about the California Democrat's advanced age and mental decline.

Feinstein, who at the time of her death was the Senate's oldest member, had memory and cognition troubles for years. It wasn’t until her shingles diagnosis kept her out of the upper chamber for months, however, that the 90-year-old’s condition became headline news.

Feinstein made history as San Francisco's first female mayor and first woman elected to the Senate from California. But in recent years, the former Senate Intelligence Committee chairwoman faced questions about her mental acuity after reported instances of her forgetting conversations with top lawmakers and staff. Some reports had described her not recognizing longtime colleagues she had known for years.

She revived those concerns when she appeared unaware that her office had sent out the press release announcing her Senate retirement in February. Feinstein said at the time that she wouldn't seek reelection in 2024, though she vowed to serve out the remaining 20 months of her term despite her recent shingles diagnosis and prolonged absence.

That absence allowed Republicans on the Senate Judiciary Committee to block President Joe Biden’s judicial nominees, something committee Chairman Dick Durbin (D-IL) eventually acknowledged publicly.

Facing resignation calls from House Democrats and frustration from her Senate colleagues that was spilling out into public view, Feinstein returned to the Capitol in mid-May in a wheelchair, looking frail and at times disoriented. The 90-year-old was largely kept out of public view from then on, being whisked to and from votes and committee hearings by staff without taking many questions from journalists.

Feinstein was working at the time of her death in late September. She took part in Senate voting as late as the morning before her death, though she skipped a midday luncheon conference with Sen. Bob Menendez (D-NJ) and evening voting that day.

Gov. Gavin Newsom (D-CA) appointed Sen. Laphonza Butler (D-CA) to fill her seat.

Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell’s freezing episodes

Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell (R-KY) faced a flurry of questions about his health and well-being this year following two high-profile freezing episodes over the summer.

McConnell, 81, had just begun speaking to reporters about the National Defense Authorization Act when he suddenly froze, looking straight ahead with a blank stare for 18 seconds. Sen. John Barrasso (R-WY), the Senate GOP Conference chairman and a former orthopedic surgeon, walked up to the podium to ask McConnell if he was OK. Barrasso and a McConnell aide then helped walk the Republican leader to his office down the hall, where he stayed for a few minutes before returning to take questions from reporters.

An aide said McConnell "felt lightheaded and stepped away for a moment," adding that, "He came back to handle Q&A, which, as everyone observed, was sharp."

An upbeat McConnell later assured reporters waiting outside his office that he was OK while walking back to the Senate floor shortly after the incident, though he did not directly respond when asked if he was dehydrated or had spoken to a doctor. He instead revealed that President Joe Biden had called to check in on him.

"So, the president called to check on me. I told him I got sandbagged," the top Senate Republican joked, making reference to Biden's fall onstage at last month's Air Force Academy graduation when the president tripped over a sandbag. "I’m fine. I’m fine, that’s the important part. Got to watch those sandbags."

That incident took place in late July, just a month before the next episode would occur.

McConnell again froze in front of the cameras, this time while in Kentucky speaking to local reporters. The top Senate Republican, asked by a reporter about his 2026 election plans, stared off into the distance, unable to speak for about 30 seconds until aides rushed to his side.

Attempting to quell concerns about his ability to serve out his leadership duties, McConnell’s office released a letter from Dr. Brian Monahan, the Capitol's attending physician, at the end of August stating that there was "no evidence" the octogenarian leader had "experienced a stroke, TIA or movement disorder such as Parkinson’s disease," though he has partially tied the incidents to a concussion McConnell suffered earlier this year.

The lack of candor is not entirely surprising. McConnell, the longest-serving Senate leader in history, is revered as one of the greatest political operators of the last century. The GOP leader has been careful about how he presents himself to the press and the larger public, especially given that showing any signs of vulnerability could lead to questions about his power.

Since the summer, however, the minority leader appears to be back in full swing, still participating in his weekly briefings and daily floor speeches on top of his other duties.

Sen. Joe Manchin's retirement announcement

Sen. Joe Manchin's (D-WV) decision to not seek reelection to his coveted Senate seat followed nearly a year of speculation about his political future and sparked questions about his potential 2024 White House bid.

Manchin, who was widely viewed as the most vulnerable incumbent heading into the 2024 Senate elections, announced in November he would not run for another term. The West Virginia Democrat said he instead planned to travel the country in hopes of trying to unify the divided political wings.

"After months of deliberation and long conversations with my family, I believe in my heart of hearts that I have accomplished what I set out to do for West Virginia," Manchin said at the time. "I have made one of the toughest decisions of my life and decided that I will not be running for reelection to the United States Senate, but what I will be doing is traveling the country and speaking out to see if there is an interest in creating a movement to mobilize the middle and bring Americans together."

Manchin, a centrist Democrat representing a heavily Republican state, spent months playing coy about his 2024 plans as poll after poll showed him trailing Gov. Jim Justice (R-WV), his leading Senate opponent, by considerable margins. Justice is a Democrat-turned-Republican and a longtime friend-turned-political foe of Manchin. He is also the only Republican who polled competitively against Manchin, a former governor of the ruby-red state.

The Manchin-Justice matchup would be among the most expensive Senate contests of the 2024 cycle, though only if the incumbent senator opted to seek a third term. With Manchin out, the race will now largely be decided through the GOP primary between Justice and Rep. Alex Mooney (R-WV), both of whom have deep-pocketed backers.

Manchin's decision to hit the road to try to unify the country has kept speculation alive that he may decide to launch a presidential bid, something he's acknowledged he's considering. The outgoing senator has also fiercely defended plans from the centrist group No Labels to create a third-party presidential ticket amid sustained speculation that he could be their nominee.

Former Maryland Gov. Larry Hogan, a centrist Republican, said last month that No Labels would reach a decision about running someone in the 2024 contest around Super Tuesday, which takes place on March 5.

Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer's artificial intelligence push

Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer (D-NY) devoted considerable time and resources this year toward his longer-term effort to regulate artificial intelligence.

The majority leader teamed up with Sen. Mike Rounds (R-SD) to organize nine "AI Insight Forums," a series of discussions with experts from across the tech sector, for members to apprise themselves of the subject matter. Schumer has said he intends to have the various committees begin writing and introducing legislation to establish AI guardrails in early 2024, though how the industry should be regulated remains under intense debate.

“It affects just every aspect of society. It’s not just one area or another area,” Schumer said after one of his AI forums in September. “The normal reaction of the legislative body would probably say, 'It’s too hard.' 'Let someone else do it,' or 'Let’s kick the can down the road.' But we can’t afford to do that. AI is too important to leave alone.”

“What kind of agency should do the regulation? Should it be an existing agency? Should it be a sort of combination of existing agencies in some areas and new agency in others?” he added, indicating none of the questions he posed were anywhere close to being answered.

Speaking at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in June, Schumer warned that the path to reaching consensus on these matters and passing legislation was a long one.

“It's not going to be days or weeks, but it's not going to be years,” Schumer said at the time. “Months would be the proper timeline that I would give you.”

The majority leader has not said if he intends to host additional forums in 2024.

Republicans and Democrats have both stated the importance of passing legislation to establish guidelines for AI development.

Some tech industry leaders, as well as Rep. Don Beyer (D-VA), have pushed for the creation of an independent federal agency to create licenses and set the rules for AI.

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Other industry representatives, such as Google President of Global Affairs Kent Walker, argue that the tools required to regulate AI should not be centered in a single agency. Instead, they should have standards set by a federal office like the National Institute of Standards and Technology, allowing federal agencies to make the appropriate rulemaking decisions.

Schumer and Beyer, the leading House Democrat on the technology, have expressed confidence they can pass bipartisan AI regulations by sometime in the coming year.

Christopher Hutton contributed to this report.