FRANKFURT, Germany — As Israel and Iran trade fire in their most intense confrontation in history, members of the Iranian diaspora in Europe are torn between hopes for change and fears for their loved ones back home.

In Frankfurt, Hamid Nasiri, 45, a product developer at a pharmaceutical company, said he had “mixed feelings” about the fighting, started by Israel on Friday after weeks of tensions over Iran’s nuclear program.

Like many Iranians in Europe, he sees Israel’s offensive as a chance to topple the Iranian leadership under Ayatollah Ali Khamenei — long accused of human rights abuses and brutally repressing dissent.

“On the one hand, Israel’s actions are specifically directed against the Islamic government, which is itself known for its brutal methods. That gives me a certain hope,” Nasiri said.

“At the same time, I naturally mourn for the people of Iran. When women, children, and now scientists are killed, I find that morally very disturbing,” he said.

“Many are caught between hope for change and horror at what is happening right now,” said an Iranian teacher based in Frankfurt who did not want to give her name.

She has not been able to reach a friend living in northern Tehran since Friday.

Israel launched its campaign early Friday, asserting an imminent existential threat from the regime’s nuclear and ballistic missile programs, and emphasizing it is not at war with Iran’s people.

Tehran has responded with deadly ballistic missile barrages at Israel, aimed at both military targets and civilian population centers but largely striking the latter.

In London on Monday, around a dozen members of the Iranian diaspora gathered in front of the Iranian embassy.

Some were waving Israeli flags, others the flag of the Pahlavi dynasty — the ruling house of Iran until the Islamic Revolution in 1979.

Psychology student Maryam Tavakol, 35, said she supported Israel’s assault.

“There is no freedom in Iran, no human rights… We support each act that makes the Islamic Republic weaker,” said Tavakol, who left Iran in 2019 and has been living in the UK for two years.

But Ali, 49, a restaurant worker living in London who did not want to give his last name, said he would prefer the archrivals to “sit down and speak to each other.”

“[I have] never supported the Iranian regime; I don’t like the regime,” said Ali, who left Iran in 1997.

“[But] who will suffer? The people… I don’t support anyone who harms kids and people. I’m really upset,” he said.

“We still have family and friends in Iran, Tehran,” said Paria, 32, another London restaurant worker.

“They are fleeing to the north. We are really worried for them.”

Hamidreza Javdan, a 71-year-old actor and director originally from Tehran and now living in Paris, said the Iranian diaspora was “divided” over the conflict.

“Some say ‘no one has the right to attack our country,’ others think it’s a good thing,” he said.

Javdan said he was “hopeful” for a change of government but also feared for his brother, who is disabled and unable to quickly leave Tehran.

“And there are more than 10 million people in Tehran, where are they going to go?” he said.

In Berlin, an Iranian translator who wanted to remain anonymous said she felt “torn” over Israel’s attacks.

“I hope so much that this war will overthrow the mullah regime. I wish for that so much. Then all the deaths would not have been in vain,” she said.

Tehran said Monday that 224 people, mostly civilians, had been killed by Israeli strikes since Jerusalem launched its campaign early Friday. Israel has said it does not target civilians, and uses measures to strike as precisely as possible.

Twenty-four Israelis have been killed by Iran’s ballistic missile barrages since the fighting began last week.