A “perfect storm” of climate change, sun-baked soil and a meteorological phenomenon known as the “cold drop” created the deadliest flash floods in Spain since 1996.

And questions are also being asked about the level of flood defences needed to combat the annual autumn downpours in the region  of Valencia.

Torrential rainfall in autumn along the Spanish Mediterranean coast is caused by a “gota fría” or cold drop.

It occurs when warmer, moist Mediterranean air hits a sudden influx of colder air from the north and triggers very heavy, localised downpours.

Valencia, which is on the coast, is particularly at risk of these isolated high-altitude depressions in autumn because the Mediterranean Sea is still warm.